The list and interpretation of factors that can be used as biomarkers in the progression of Alzheimer’s disease and MCI
| Biomarkers | Characteristic |
|---|---|
| Amyloid-β 42/40, APP 669∼711 | Reduced Aβ42/Aβ40 ratio in AD |
| High APP 669∼711/Aβ42 ratio in AD | |
| Brain amyloid positive | |
| ApoE | Directly interact with Aβ, tau, and α-synuclein |
| Apolipoprotein A1 | Decreased in AD and MCI |
| BDNF | Decreased in AD but not in MCI |
| Clusterin/cyclin dependent kinase 5 | Increased in AD and MCI |
| Cystatin C | Decreased in AD and MCI |
| Galectin-3 | Microglial activity marker & AD biomarker |
| GAP-43 | Lower in AD & prediction of AD 5∼7 years before cognitive impairment |
| GSK-3β | Increased in AD and MCI |
| Homocysteine | Increased in AD |
| Neurofilament light | High plasma NFL in AD and MCI |
| Neurograinin | High CSF specific in AD |
| Protein kinase C | Formation of amyloid plaque in AD |
| SNAP25/synaptotagmin 1 | Lower in AD & prediction of AD 5∼7 years before cognitive impairment |
| TDP-43 | Nervous system disorders, FTD |
| Total-tau and phosphorylated-tau | Increased in AD (MCI) and acute brain damage |
| YKL-40 | Possible biomarker in the diagnosis and prognosis of AD |
| α-1-antitrypsin/α-2-macroglobulin | Increased in AD |
| α-synuclein | Aggregation of dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB) |
Abbreviations: MCI, mild cognitive impairment; Aβ, amyloid-β; AD, Alzheimer’s disease; APP, amyloid precursor protein; CSF, cerebrospinal fluid; FTD, frontotemporal dementia; BDNF, brain-derived neurotrophic factor; NFL, neurofilament light; P-tau, phosphorylated tau; T-tau, total tau; Aβ1-42, 42-residue isoform of beta amyloid protein; GAP-43, growth associated protein; GSK-3β, glycogen synthase kinase 3β; BACE1, β-secretase 1; BDNF, brain-derived neurotrophic factor; SNAP25, synaptosome associated protein 25; Gal-3, galectin-3; ApoE, apolipoprotein E; TDP-43, transactive response DNA-binding protein 43 kDa; YKL-40, tyrosine (Y), lysine (K) and leucine (L) and the molecular mass of the protein is 40 kDa.
